Drought Causes, Stages, and Problems

Drought Causes, Stages, and Problems Every year as summer approaches, areas around the world grow concerned about seasonal drought. Throughout the winter, many places monitor precipitation and the snowpack to prepare for what the warmer, drier months may bring. In addition, there are areas where drought is a regular year to year occurrence that lasts longer than just the summer. From hot deserts to the freezing poles, drought is something that affects plants, animals, and people worldwide. What Is a Drought? Drought is defined as a period in which a region has a deficit in its water supply. Drought is a normal feature of climate which happens in all climate zones from time to time. Usually, drought is talked about in one of two perspectives- meteorological and hydrological. A drought in terms of meteorology takes into account deficiencies in measured precipitation. Each years measurements are then compared to what is determined as a normal amount of precipitation and drought is determined from there. For hydrologists, droughts are monitored by checking stream flow and lake, reservoir, and aquifer water levels. Precipitation is also considered here as it contributes to the water levels. In addition, there are agricultural droughts that can impact crop production and cause changes to the natural distribution of various species. The farms themselves can also cause droughts to happen as the soil is depleted and therefore cannot absorb as much water, but they can be impacted by natural droughts as well. Causes Because drought is defined as a deficit in water supply, it can be caused by a number of factors. The most important one though relates to the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere as this is what creates precipitation. More rain, sleet, hail, and snow can occur where there are moist, low-pressure air systems. If there is an above average presence of dry, high-pressure air systems instead, less moisture is available to produce precipitation (because these systems cannot hold as much water vapor). This results in a deficit of water for the areas over which they move. The same can also happen when winds shift air masses and warm, dry, continental air moves over an area as opposed to cooler, moist, oceanic air masses. El Nino, which affects the oceans water temperature, also has an impact on precipitation levels because, in years when the temperature cycle is present, it can shift the air masses above the ocean, often making wet places dry (drought prone) and dry places wet. Finally, deforestation for agriculture and/or building combined with the resultant erosion can also cause drought to begin because as the soil is moved away from an area it is less able to absorb moisture when it falls. Stages of Drought Since many areas, regardless of their climatic region, are prone to drought, different definitions of the stages of drought have developed. They are all somewhat similar, however, usually ranging from a drought warning or watch, which is the least severe. This stage is declared when a drought could be approaching. The next stages are mostly called drought emergency, disaster, or critical drought stage. This final stage begins after a drought has occurred for a long period and water sources begin to be depleted. During this stage, public water use is limited and oftentimes drought disaster plans are put into place. Short and Long Term Consequences Regardless of a droughts stage, there are short and long term consequences with any drought because of nature and societys dependence on water. Problems associated with drought can have economic, environmental, and social impacts on both the areas where they occur and areas that have relations with those where the drought happens. Most of the economic impacts of drought are associated with agriculture and the income generated from crops. In times of drought, the lack of water can often cause a decline in crop yields, and thus a reduction in income for farmers and an increase in the market price of products since there is less to go around. In a prolonged drought, unemployment of farmers and even retailers can occur, having a significant impact on the economy of the area and those with economic ties to it. In terms of environmental problems, drought can result in insect infestations and plant diseases, increased erosion, habitat and landscape degradation, a decrease in air quality and that of what water is present, as well as an increased risk of fire because of drier vegetation. In short-term droughts, natural environments can often rebound, but when there are long term droughts, plant and animal species can suffer tremendously, and over time desertification can happen with an extreme lack of moisture. Finally, droughts have social impacts that can cause disputes between users of available water, inequalities in water distribution between wealthy and poor, disparities in areas in need of disaster relief, and a decline in health. In addition, in rural developing countries population migration can begin when one area experiences drought because often people will go to areas where water and its benefits are more prevalent. This then depletes the natural resources of the new area, can create conflicts among neighboring populations and takes workers away from the original area. Over time, increased poverty and social unrest are likely to develop. Drought Mitigation Measures Because severe drought is often slow in its development, it is relatively easy to tell when one is coming and in areas that are capable, there are several mitigation measures that can be used to reduce the impacts felt by drought. The most important steps in lessening the effects of drought though are soil and water conservation. By protecting soil, it is better able to absorb precipitation, but it can also help farmers to use less water because it is absorbed and not as much run off. It also creates less water pollution by the pesticides and fertilizers present in most farm runoff. In water conservation, public use is often regulated. This mostly includes watering yards, washing cars and outdoor fixtures such as patio tables, and swimming pools. Cities such as Phoenix, Arizona, and Las Vegas, Nevada have also implemented the use of xeriscape landscaping to reduce the need to water outdoor plants in dry environments. In addition, Water conservation devices like low-flow toilets, shower heads, and washing machines can be required for use inside the home. Finally, desalination of seawater, water recycling, and rainwater harvesting are all things that are currently under development to build on existing water supplies and further reduce the impacts of drought in dry climates. Whatever method is used, however, extensive monitoring of precipitation and water usage are the best way to prepare for a drought, inform the public on the problem, and implement conservation strategies.

Skate Characteristics and Information

Skate Characteristics and Information Skates are a type of cartilaginous fish that have a flat body and wing-like pectoral fins attached to their head. If you can picture a stingray, you know basically what a skate looks like. There are dozens of species of skates. According to the Florida Museum of Natural History, the common skate is the largest skate species - it can reach over 8 feet in length. At only about 30 inches, the starry skate is the smallest skate species. Description of a Skate Fish Like stingrays, skates have a long, whip-like tail and breathe through spiracles. Breathing through spiracles allows the skate to rest on the ocean bottom and get oxygenated water through openings in their head, rather than breathing in water and sand from the ocean bottom. Skates may also have a prominent dorsal fin (or two fins) near the end of their tail, while rays usually do not. While many fish propel themselves by flexing their bodies and using their tail, skates move by flapping their wing-like pectoral fins. Unlike stingrays, skates do not have a venomous spine in their tail. Classification Skates are a type of cartilaginous fish. They are classified in the order Rajiformes, which contains a dozen families, including the families Anacanthobatidae and Rajidae, which include skates and smooth skates. Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: ElasmobranchiiOrder: Rajiformes Feeding Skates eat shellfish, worms, and crabs. They have strong teeth and jaws, allowing them to easily crush shells. Habitat and Distribution Skates live throughout the world. Skates spend most of their time on the ocean bottom. Reproduction Reproduction is another way that skates differ from rays. Skates bear their young in eggs, while rays bear live young. Thus, skates are oviparous. With rays, the young develop in eggs that are retained in the mothers body, thus they are ovoviviparous. Skates mate at the same nursery grounds each year. Male skates have claspers that they use to transmit sperm to the female, and eggs are fertilized internally. The eggs develop into a capsule called an egg case- or more commonly, a mermaids purse - and then are deposited onto the ocean floor. These mermaids purses sometimes wash up on beaches. The egg cases may sit on the ocean floor, or attach to seaweeds. Inside the egg case, a yolk nourishes the embryos. The young may remain in the egg case for up to 15 months, and then hatch looking like miniature adult skates. Conservation and Human Uses Skates are harmless to humans. Skates are commercially harvested  for their wings, which are considered tasty (Skate Wing With Butter, anyone?). The flesh of a skates wing is said to be similar to the taste and texture of scallops. They are usually harvested  using  otter trawls. Skate wings can also be used for lobster bait, and to make fish meal and pet food. In addition to commercial fisheries, skates may also be caught as bycatch. Some U.S. skate species, such as the thorny skate, are considered overfished, and management plans are in place in the U.S. to protect skate populations through methods such as fishing trip limits, and possession prohibitions. Skate Species Below are some examples of skate species found in the U.S.: Barndoor Skate (Dipturus laevis)Big Skate (Raja binoculata)Longnose Skate (Raja rhina)Thorny Skate (Amblyraja radiata)Winter Skate (Leucoraja ocellata)Little Skate (Leucoraja erinacea) Sources Bester, Cathleen. Ray and Skate Basics (Online). Florida Museum of Natural History: Icthyology.   Canadian Shark Research Lab. 2007. Skates and Rays of Atlantic Canada: Reproduction. Canadian Shark Research Lab.   Coulombe, Deborah A. 1984. The Seaside Naturalist. Simon Schuster. Sosebee, Kathy. Skates - Status of Fishery Resources off the Northeastern US. NOAA NEFSC - Resource Evaluation and Assessment Division. World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS). WoRMS Taxon List.

PAPER 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PAPER 2 - Essay Example The strain theory assumes that all persons aspire for a similar social status and material needs, although the means available to achieve these desires differs from person to person. Institutions like family, educational system, religion and the economy help the individual in attaining success. However, the theory also believes that issues like family status and wealth play a significant role in determining the level of success attained by the individual even in a highly competitive society (Mednick, 2008). The theory thus contends that strain is felt whenever these support factors do not provide equal opportunity thereby prompting people to adopt illegal ways to achieve these means. Such persons are under pressure from the larger society to conform to specific ideals which ultimately forced them to turn into criminals. On the other hand, the control theory believes that such deviations from conformed norms can be resolved through a good family, parenting and education (Adler, 2009). The control theory relies on the ‘push and pull theory’ to explain the reasons behind crime including social deficiencies and psychological pressures that push the individual towards crime and illegal opportunities that can pull the person towards criminal activities.

Land cruiser vs nissan patrol Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Land cruiser vs nissan patrol - Essay Example Extensively, the Toyota Land Cruiser performs its road tests in the Australian road conditions. With time, the Toyota land Cruiser’s popularity has spread globally (O’Kane 2010). A Nissan Motors, a Japanese-based company, make the Nissan Patrol 4WD. In Japan, it is known as the Nissan Safari. In Japan, it is still referred to as the Nissan Safari even if its production stops in the year 2004. During the early 1960s, the actor of the film ‘Cowboy’ liked the vehicle incredibly that he was offered a Nissan 4WD by the automaker in return for his backing. By 1964, the model cost approximately $1,616 (leppard 2008). By the 1960s, the vehicle was utilized as a military vehicle specifically in the Middle East and South Asia. Primarily, the patrol was a transport vehicle used by the Indian army in the late 1960s and early 1970s. At the Indian plant where it was assembled, it was named Jonga. The United Nations agencies in addition utilized the Patrol. The Patrol enjoys a recommendable popularity in numerous countries in the Middle East, also the United Arab Emirates. The design is now accessible with entertainment equipment, keyless start and other impressive features (leppard 2008). When launched in 2010, the carmaker made it public that they will continue producing the older generation alongside the new generation ones. The best of them all in touring is the Nissan 4WD model. The 2010 model came as a 5-doors design, along with 4.8-litre inline 6-cylinder engine as average, and the 5-speed automatic choice, with tiptronic or the 5-speed manual. In the middle 2011, a 3-door short-wheelbase design was availed with similar drivetrain, as the 2012 design (leppard 2008). The patrol contains the interior modern features like wood trim, cd/mp3 stereo, fog lamps, cloth upholstery, manual a/c 16-inch wheel, and other apparatus (leppard 2008). The Toyota has three, 4WD land cruiser model, but there is one that is

Care of the older adult notes Essay Example for Free

Care of the older adult notes Essay Many older patients are prescribed multiple drugs, take over-the-counter medications, and are often prescribed additional drugs to treat the side effects of the medications that they are already taking. The increase in the number of medications often leads to polypharmacy, which is defined as the prescription, administration, or use of more medications than are clinically indicated in a given patient. One widely used ADL tool is the Barthel Index : measure functional levels of self-care and mobility, and it rates the ability to feed and groom oneself, bathe, go to the toilet, walk (or propel a wheelchair), climb stairs, and control bowel and bladder. The original ADL tool was developed by Katz Several interventions that may help the prescriber to prevent polypharmacy include knowing all medications, by both brand and generic name, being used by the patient; identifying indications for each medication; knowing the side effect profiles of the medications; eliminating drugs with no benefit or indication; and avoiding the urge to treat a drug reaction with another drug. Patient education on the risks of polypharmacy may help the patient as well. The Mini-Cog: The screening consists of a three-item recall and a clock-drawing test. This reliable tool can assist nurses with early detection of cognitive problems. Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE): measure change in cognitive impairment. It measures orientation, registration, attention and calculation, short-term recall, language, and visuospatial function. *Dementia is a permanent progressive decline in cognitive function Of the five senses—hearing, vision, smell, taste, and touch—it is the occurrence of diminishe d vision and hearing that seems to have the greatest impact on older adults. Problems with vision or hearing can have negative effects on social interaction and hence on social and psychological health. Presbyopia refers to an age-related change in vision. Presbycusis refers to age-related progressive hearing loss. Age-related macular degeneration, the deterioration of central vision, Assessing Older Adults  cognitive-testing tools such as the Mini–Mental State Exam or the Orientation–Memory–Concentration Test (OMCT).3 Both tools assess orientation  to time and place, short-term memory, and concentration. The CAM is a standardized instrument developed for clinicians to identifydelirium, an acute change in mental status from baseline, quickly and accurately. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA © Version 7.1) was developed as a quick screening tool for MCI and early Alzheimer’s dementia. It assesses the domains of attention and concentration, executive functions, memory, language, visuoconstructional skills, conceptual thinking, calculations, and orientation End-of-Life Care The interdisciplinary group or team (IDG/IDT): Registered nurse—coordinates the plan of care for each patient Health Promotion Healthy people 2010- preventative measures for ages 50-64 Healthcare Policy and Reform Medicare is Title XVIII of the Social Security Act; it was passed in 1965, after years of trying to provide some kind of universal health insurance. It is an insurance program for those 65 or over who have paid into the Social Security system, the railroad fund, or are diagnosed with end stage renal disease. Activity: Healthcare Policy and Reform In general, you should apply for Medicaid if your income is low and you match one of the descriptions below. Medicare is a Federal health insurance program for people 65 years or older, certain people with disabilities, and people with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Medicare Medicare is an insurance program. Medical bills are paid from trust funds which those covered have paid into. It serves people over 65 primarily, whatever their income; and serves younger disabled people and dialysis patients. Patients pay part of costs through deductibles for hospital and other costs. Small monthly premiums are required for non-hospital coverage. Medicare is a federal program. It is basically the same everywhere in the United States and is run by the Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services, an agency of the federal government. Medicaid Medicaid is an assistance program. Medical bills are paid from federal, state and local tax funds. It serves low-income people of every age. Patients usually pay no part of costs for covered medical expenses. A small co-payment is sometimes required. Medicaid is a federal-state program. It varies from state to state. It is run by state and local governments within federal guidelines. To qualify for Medicaid, an individual must fit into a category of eligibility and meet certain financial and resource standards. Medicaid provides three types of health protection: 1) health insurance for low-income families and people with disabilities, 2) long-term care (LTC) for older Americans and persons with disabilities, and 3) supplemental coverage for low-income Medicare beneficiaries for services not covered by Medicare Living Environment Annual vaccination against influenza is recommended for all adults 65 years of age or older because more than 90% of the deaths from influenza occur in this population. Periodic boosters of tetanus vaccine, traditionally given every 10 years in the United States, are recommended for older adults by the USPSTF. The Beers List of medications to be avoided in the elderly has become a national guideline for prescribers and pharmacists in the United States (Fick etal., 2003). These medications include long-acting benzodiazepines, sedative or hypnotic agents, longacting oral hypoglycemics, analgesics, antiemetics, and gastrointestinal antispasmodics. Maintaining Functional Independence â€Å"Elderly patients with unintentional weight loss are at higher risk for infection, depression and death† U.S. Public Health Service published the report Promoting Health/Preventing Disease: Objectives for the Nation. This 1980 report outlined 226 objectives for the nation to achieve over the following 10 years. Healthy People 2000, was initiated by the U.S. Public Health Service in another effort to reduce preventable death and disability for Americans. Healthy People 2010 initiative; however, the number of objectives has increased to 467, and these are distributed over 28 priority areas. Frailty is perceived as a general decline in the physical function of older adults that can increase vulnerability to illness and decline. Defining characteristics include unintentional weight loss of more than 10%  in the prior year, feelings of exhaustion, grip strength in the weakest 20% for age, walking speed in the lowest 20% for age, and low caloric expenditure.

The Devil in the Shape of a woman Essay -- essays research papers

The Devil in the Shape of a Woman â€Å"The Devil in the Shape of a Woman† was an excellent book that focuses on the unjusts that have been done to women in the name of witchcraft in Salem, and many other areas as well. It goes over statistical data surrounding gender, property inherence, and the perceptions of women in colonial New England. Unlike the other studies of colonial witchcraft, this book examines it as a whole, other then the usual Salem outbreaks in the late 17th century. To completely understand the history of New England witchcraft you have to understand the role of colonial women. The author of this book, Carol Karlsen, used a lot of Secondary and primary sources to support her thesis. She uses first hand accounts of witch trials. Which I found very interesting to read. Such as her use of Cotton Mathers personal writings. She also used court records as one of her sources to writing this book. These records showed the detailed court proceedings, depositions, and court rulings. The book begins with a brief history of the colonial witchcraft. Each Chapter is structured with an orientation, presentation of evidence, and her conclusion. A good example of her structure is in chapter two on the demographics of witchcraft; here she summarizes the importance of age and marital status in witchcraft accusations. Following this she provides a good transition into chapter three in the final sentence of chapter two, â€Å"A closer look of the material conditions and behavior of acc...

The Star Spangled Banner

English 101 November 21, 2012 The Star Spangled Banner The Star Spangled Banner is a very powerful and moving song that not only defines our country as a free and independent nation, but it also presents us with the struggles we went through to become who we are. The Star Spangled Banner originated as the poem â€Å"Defense of Fort McHenry† in 1814 by Frances Scott Key. The national anthem was not written during the American Revolution, contrary to popular belief. It was, in fact, written in the War of 1812. Although the poem has four unique stanzas, we normally only recognize the first one, and sometimes the second stanza as well.Our anthem, regardless of its patriotic values, is a great example of rich English literature that symbolizes our people even after 200 years. But, in reality, the song has a wide variety of meanings and interpretations deeply embedded in the historical significance it represents. The first line of the song reads, â€Å"O say can you see by the dawn ’s early light? What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming? † Translated in to today’s contemporary language, this means, â€Å"hey there, can you see by morning what was there before the sun set yesterday evening? Frances Scott Key introduces the topic of this song by grabbing the reader’s attention. This first line of the song makes readers wonder what Key is referring to, making them want to read the poem on further. When Key mention’s the â€Å"dawn’s early light† he is referring to an early morning; a new day and a new beginning. The â€Å"twilight’s last gleaming† suggests a very special time of day; right before the sun is setting and there is a tiny streak of light that appears in the sky. These two verses show a lot of symbolism.Once again, we must use the historical context of this poem to make meaning of the lyrics. The War of 1812 was a war fought by the British and Americans. Key was on a British ship when he wrote this poem, negotiating with the officers to release some of the American hostages. He was watching the battle of Fort McHenry in Baltimore. The battle took place in the late evening, when the American flag was still up and flying. In these lines, Key is asking himself, â€Å"Will the flag still be up tomorrow morning? † The twilight’s last gleaming could represent hope.Key still has faith and trust in his country. Even in the midst of a bloodthirsty battle, Key hoped that he would see the American flag the next morning. He hoped he would see a sign of perseverance and strength instead of weak downfall. He wanted his country to reign through the peril it oversaw. If the American flag was still not up by â€Å"the dawn’s early light†, it would signify defeat the British. The second two lines of the Star Spangled Banner places emphasis on the American flag. Today, our flag is commonly referred to as the stars and stripes.Key not iced these two distinct features and decided to define the American flag by â€Å"the stars and stripes†. History has it that there were two flags that were flown over Fort McHenry, one of them being a â€Å"storm flag†. This was the flag that was flown during the rainy day and the â€Å"perilous night† and the flag that was described in the first part of The Star Spangled Banner. This line reflects the determination of the American army. The flag is a key symbol of our nation. Key cleverly used this patriotic symbol to show how persistent our soldiers were; they kept fighting through the sanguine fighting of the night.When Key woke up by morning, a new flag was hoisted up, apart from the storm flag that he saw the previous night. Fort McHenry was proudly flying its much larger â€Å"garrison flag†. This flag measured 30 ft. by 42 ft. , larger than a modern day school bus. Key believed this was the same flag that was flown the previous night, when the Bri tish had attacked. Regardless of whether it was the storm flag or not, the sight of the American flag flying over the fort after a gory battle gave hope and confidence to its citizens.It once again stated the power of America as a powerful independent nation. The flag indirectly told the world to never underestimate the potential of America. The third line of the poem is very awkwardly phrased and positioned, once again reflecting the time period Key wrote the poem. â€Å"O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming† is referring to the previous line. Ramparts are protective walls. In this context, Key is referring to the walls of Fort McHenry. He very cleverly uses the word â€Å"ramparts† to describe the walls.The ramparts were built in 1776 to protect the city of Baltimore in case the British tried to attack through the Chesapeake Bay. After the War of 1812 was brought to attention, a local committee raised over $400,000 to strengthen the walls t o protect the citizens in case of an unexpected British attack. The word rampart suggests that the citizens were able to watch the battle with a sense of security as the soldiers risked their lives for their country. It solidifies the expression of sacrifice. Over the whole scene, Key once again mentions the American flag â€Å"gallantly streaming†.This gives the notion that this concept of sacrifice is very much American. It is an American soldier’s duty to lay his life down for his country. The next few lines start to intensely invoke emotions from the reader: â€Å"And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air, gave proof through the night that our flag was still there† During the battle of Fort McHenry, the British had more than 15 battle ships, each armed with heavy artillery and one armed with a rocket launcher. Through the night, as the rockets were fired in to the air, they illuminated the sky with a bloody red glow.That red glow showed th e British where the American flag was so they would know where to aim. But, here comes the notion of good that comes out of evil. While the British threw the bombs in the air to destroy the flag, they ended up illuminating the flag, giving hope to all the patriotic soldiers to keep fighting. The motive of the British was to destroy the American flag, according to the poem by Frances Scott Key. The American flag was the symbol of America. It was the identity of the United States of America, because it represented the journey of America.The alternating 13 red and white stripes showed represented the moments of bloodshed and light in America. The fifty stars represent each of the strong independent states. By placing the stars in the same box, it shows unity among the various states. By destroying the flag, the British are stripping away the identity of the Americans. The final line of the first stanza summarizes the whole message of the song: â€Å"Oh, say that Star – Spangled Banner yet wave? O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave! † This line clearly states that the flag of the United States represents liberty and independence for all.As long as the flag shall wave, it will mark America as â€Å"the land of the free and the home of the brave†. Throughout the song, Key expresses a hero journey; a journey through hell and back in to the light. This is the story of Fort McHenry. The Americans were plunged in to a world of blood and gore. But the outcome of the battle was very significant. The American flag became a physical representation of good over evil. It was the marking of the victory of America, once again. The battle was a memory of the importance of our â€Å"Star- Spangled Banner†.

Venuti’s Theory of Foregnisation Applied to the Phenomenon

Fan-Translation and heterogeneity: Venuti’s theory of foregnisation applied to the phenomenon of fan-translation In this essay I set out to explore the extent to which Lawrence Venuti’s theory of foreignising translation can be usefully applied to explain the practices of fan-translation communities. Fan-translation (hereafter, FT) is a relatively recent phenomenon. O’Hagan , following Flew’s definition of User Generated Content (Flew 2008 in O'Hagan 2009, p. 7) derives the term ‘User Generated Translation’ (hereafter, UGT) in order to describe a â€Å"wide range of translation, carried out based on free use participation in digital media spaces where translation is undertaken by unspecified self-selected individuals† (O'Hagan 2009, p. 97). The user in question is therefore somebody who â€Å"voluntarily act as a ‘remediator’ of linguistically inaccessible products and ‘direct producer’ of translation on the b asis of [his] knowledge of the given language as well as that of a particular media content or genre, spurred by [his] substantial interest in the topic (O'Hagan 2009, p. 7). UGT then could be applied to all those translations carried out by non-professional translators, often for non-financial motives. The term FT in this essay will be used more specifically to describe the practice of those users whose interest is directed towards a particular genre: that of Japanese cultural commodities or, more specifically, Japanese graphic novels (Manga), and animated movies (anime). The question that I would like to address in this essay is whether Lawrence Venuti’s influential theory of translation (Venuti 1995,1998)can help further understanding the phenomenon of FT.The intention of this essay is to claim that some aspects of Venuti’s ‘foregnisation’ theory do indeed serve to characterise fan-translators activities, despite the obvious contextual differences. Thes e differences are easily summarised: FT is not carried out by a single individual or even by a single group of individuals (unlike the cases cited by Venuti, where he either refers to a group of romantic intellectuals in 19th century Germany, or later isolated cases (Venuti 1995, pp. 9-147, 187-272), but a practice carried out on a wider scale, embraced by a greater number of individuals working together as a community of practice, mostly composed of non-professional translators, often very young, not always sharing the same national identity, and mostly lacking the clearly defined cultural agenda that Venuti exposed as a justification for advocating the adoption of foreignising translation practices (Venuti 1995, pp. 6-17). Fandom Fan activities have gathered scholarly attention in recent years due to the opportunities for community building and the ease of sharing content that the recent incarnation of the World Wide Web, or Web 2. 0, offers (see for example (Diaz Cintas and Munoz Sanchez 2006; Lee 2009; Sanchez 2009; Koulikov 2010; Watson 2010; Denison 2011; Lee 2011; Castells and Cardoso 2012).The reason for such scholarly attention is that fan activities, in the form of sharing digital content online, can be said to occupy a ‘liminal space’ (Denison 2011) that is dangerously close to what is often called (but not often clearly defined) ‘piracy’: fan texts that are at the â€Å"liminal edge between fan creativity and piracy. Essentially†¦text augmented by, rather than created by, fans† (Denison 2011, p. 450).For this reason, fan activities built on the relationship that is constituted in the reception of a particular form of literature have been the subject of academic interest: â€Å"Anime texts have become nexus points for discourse around ownership and rights†(Napier 2007 and Thornton 1995 in Denison 2011, p. 450). Within the wider spectrum of fan-related practices, some individuals play the role of ‘pr osumers’: producers and consumers of products, rather than passive spectators (Tapscott and Williams, 2006 in O'Hagan 2009, p. 9). Prosumers not only consume cultural products, but also manifest agency by responding creatively to their favourite text or medium. Some examples of fans creative response analysed by legal scholars could be the theatrical audience participation to showings of The Rocky Horror Show, Town bands performing free concerts, the American musical tradition â€Å"the blues† (Madison 2007, pp. 87-703), amateur fan actors producing new episodes of Star Trek, fan produced Harry Potter Lexicon, fan-made flash based animation derived from music, fan-created version of commercially created virtual mascot Miku Hatsune (Noda 2010, pp. 149-158), which are all forms of participation that sit uneasily with the notion of intellectual property rights. The practices of fans of Japanese comics and animation have been of particular interest to legal theorists (Mehr a 2002; Hatcher 2005; Lessig 2005; Muscar 2006; Noda 2008, 2010).Here it is useful to distinguish between the practices of the dojinshi (hereafter non italicised) community and the practices of the FT community or, to be more specific, communities, since fan translators operating on different media are described with different names: translation of Japanese graphic novels is carried out by a process of Scanlation; subtitling of Japanese animation is carried out by a process called Fansubbing; and finally, the process of modification and translation of video games is called RomHacking. DojinshiWhat are dojinshi, and why are they of interest to legal scholar? Lawrence Lessing, professor of law at Harvard Law School and founding board member of Creative Commons, in his 2004 work Free Culture: how big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity, uses dojinshi as an example of derivative works that could not exist in America, since dojinshi are â€Å"A kind of copycat comic†¦ It is not dojinshi if it is just a copy; the artist must make a contribution to the art he copies, by transforming it either subtly or significantly.A dojinshi comic can thus take a mainstream comic and develop it differently—with a different story line. Or the comic can keep the character in character but change its look slightly. There is no formula for what makes the dojinshi sufficiently â€Å"different. † But they must be different if they are to be considered true dojinshi† (Lessig 2005, pp. 25-26) Dojinshi are the Japanese version of what is otherwise called fan-fiction; in other words, unauthorised fan-created version or original works.The term Dojinshi (. Literally ‘dojin’ stands for ‘same person’ and ‘shi’ stands for ‘periodical publication’, which in English could be rendered as Fanzine or Fan-magazine). Dojinshi denoted a type of fan works that are â€Å"self-published, small scale publications written by fans for fans of a particular work (be it a movie, a book, a television series, or a video game) or of a particular romantic pairing possible within that work†(Hemmann 2010).Dojinshi are an important side of the culture that surrounds Japanese graphic novels (manga: literally ‘man’ stands for ‘whimsical’ and ‘ga’ stands for ‘drawings’) in Japan. Manga represent both an industry and a form of expression, so much so that in recent years the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) began to see manga as the new source of Japan’s â€Å"Gross National Cool’ (McGray 2002 in Koulikov 2010, p. 18) and began promoting the country’s content industry abroad (Yoshimoto 2003 in Koulikov 2010, p. 10).The Japanese manga industry and the dojinshi fan-communities reinforce each other in a way that is perhaps surprising to western legal theorists because it raises import ant questions in regards to the efficacy and meaningfulness of copyright practices and of the ideas about originality and authorship that underpins copyright law and associated commercial practices in the west: â€Å"This market exists in parallel to the mainstream commercial manga market. In some ways, it obviously competes with that market, but there is no sustained effort by those who control the commercial manga market to shut the doujinshi market down.It flourishes, despite the competition and despite the law [†¦] in the view of many, it is precisely because it exists that Japanese manga flourish† Lessing 2004, p. 26 The practice of scanlation and fansubbing differ from those of dojinshi artists in some important ways. First of all, they are mostly carried out by fans outside of Japan, and more specifically, while they are carried out in a variety of languages, the majority of the work is carried out by English language fans (Denison 2011, p. 54). Additionally, I wo uld argue that scanlation and fansubbing do not inhabit the same conceptual space of fan-fiction and dojinshi, even if copyright law regards adaptation and translation equally as derivative works (WIPO article 2 (3)). Dojinshi artists working within the idea of ‘complementing the original work’, while unauthorised, are conceptually closer to the wider spectrum of fan activities that are often tolerated in the west (like audience participation to theatrical performances).FT seems to inhabit a narrower conceptual space, closer, and more readily compromised by proximity, to the practices of unauthorised copying that is denounced as piracy, despite the ambiguity of the term piracy itself: â€Å"piracy has never had a stable legal definition and is almost certainly better understood as a product of enforcement debates than as a description of a specific behaviour. The terms blurs, and is often used intentionally to blur, important distinction between types of uncompensated use† (Karaganis et al. 2011, p. ) In order to attempt a conceptualisation of the practices of fan translators, here I would like to adopt Venuti’s framework of domesticating and foreignising translation. My intention in the next part of the essay is to illustrate how FT of Japanese manga and anime could find precedents in the history of translation. In short, I draw from Venuti’s critical genealogy of fluent discourse in the English language translation in order to show that FT should not merely be thought of as free-riding, but that it contains elements of previous use of translation as tool for building a national culture (Venuti 1995, 100).Similarly, FT can be said to represent a vehicle for the construction of sub-cultural capital , the â€Å"knowledge about an area of fandom that allows one to feel comfortable with other like-minded fans, but also to gain status among fellow enthusiasts â€Å" (Napier 2007, p. 150 in Denison 2011, p. 450) Translation Trans lation studies as an academic discipline has a relatively short history, emerging about twenty years ago from the back of comparative literature departments. The independence of translation studies as an academic discipline revolves around its methodology and the questions it aims to answer.Hence, an important question faces every Translation Studies student: should one restrict his enquiry to the analysis of linguistic features of a text, or should attention be paid to the context where the practice of translation takes place: the figure of the translator; his/her motivation; what void in the receiving culture is the translator trying to fill; the interests played behind the importation and exportation of culture; how law, market, social norms and publishing practices all influence the creation of culture of which translation is part of; whether all these form a kind of censorship, and should the translator resist of conform to such censorship, even when is self-censorship? In this essay I would like to explore the possibilities offered by the latter approach, by comparing and contrasting two common elements of contemporary translation: on the one hand, the critical work of Venuti in regards to ‘domestication and foregnisation’ and on the other, the â€Å"phenomenon of user participation in otherwise highly specialised areas of professional translation practice† (O'Hagan 2009, p. 96). To begin with, I would like to introduce the work of Lawrence Venuti (1995, 1998).Venuti describes the state of contemporary translation around the world as characterised by imbalance: the imbalance between the large number of books that are translated from English and the small number of books that are translated into English. This trade imbalance is an effect of the global domination of English which, according to Venuti, leads to a â€Å"complacency in Anglo-American relations with cultural others† apparent in publishing practices in Britain and Ame rica that â€Å"decreases the cultural capital of foreign values in English by limiting the number of foreign text translated and submitting them to domesticating revision† (Venuti 1995, p. 7) According to Venuti, publishing practices in Britain and America reinforce the global domination of English by imposing â€Å"Anglo-American cultural values on a vast foreign readership†, while adopting practices of translation that produce domestic cultures that are â€Å"aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, accustomed to fluent translations that†¦provide the readers with the narcissistic experience of recognising their own culture in a cultural other†(Venuti 1995, p. 15) Emphasis added). Venuti is critical of the canon of fluency that dominated the practice of translation into English. By fluency, Venuti wants to describe a particular way of translating which emphasise the production of texts that conceal their foreignness and instead makes them app ear as the original expression of the foreign author, essentially unmediated by the process of translation. Venuti defines such process of assimilation, in a manner that conceals the text foreign origin, as ‘domestication’.While admittedly all translation is appropriation and assimilation, domestication has the troubling effect, according to Venuti, of reinforcing an ethnocentric attitude towards foreign cultures: the belief that other cultures are in fact no different from one’s own and therefore, that one’s own culture is universal: â€Å"the prevalence of fluent domestication has supported these developments [the monolingual, unreceptive and narcissistic culture above] because of its economic value: enforced by editors, publishers, and reviewers, fluency results in translation that are eminently readable and therefore consumable in the book market, assisting in their commoditisation and insuring the neglect of foreign texts and English-language transla tions discourses that are more resistant to easy readability (Venuti 1995, pp. 15-16).In order to â€Å"resist and change the conditions under which translation is theorised and practiced today, especially in the English-speaking countries† Venuti wants to put forward a â€Å"strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, pitched against the hegemonic English language nations and their unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage theory global others† (Venuti 1995, p. 20). Venuti’s argument then is that literary translators, in an effort to challenge current translation practices, should attempt a ‘foreignising’ approach to translation. What this mean in practice is the production of texts that read as translations and the suggested method to achieve this effect is a theory of translation that emphasise heterogeneity of language.Languages are never monolithically homogeneous entities: different agents will employ language in a different way, according to whom, and in what manner, is an utterance is addressed. Standard literary English is language that exists only in translated foreign literature. Foreignising translation then should attempt to disrupt the homogeneity imposed by textual ‘transparency’ and ‘fluidity’ of the reading experience by inserting traces of heterogeneous language (slang, dialect, archaism, cliques, etc†¦ ) into an otherwise canonical translation. Foregnisation, according to Venuti, â€Å"can alter the way translations are read as well as produced† (Venuti 1995, p. 24).Whether foregnisation can achieve the results that Venuti’s cultural political agenda aim towards is still unclear; Venuti himself reports that critical reviews of his translated works did indeed cause some reactions; some reviewers found this choice of words unconvincing, suspecting that Italian romantics would not have expressed themselves with the obvious colloquiali sm that Venuti strategically employed (Venuti 1998, 19). Such criticism only goes to confirm Venuti’s belief: â€Å"the fact is that Italian romantics would not have used most of the words in my translation because they wrote in Italian, not English† (Venuti 1998, 19-20). The reader had to suspend her cultural and linguistic expectations towards to the foreign text and was forced to take notice of the mediated nature of the translated text, exposing in the criticism the â€Å"dominant narrative form† and â€Å"a prevalent ethnic stereotype† (Venuti 1998, 20). Pym (Venuti’s Visibility Anthony Pym Target 8/2 (1996), pp. 65-177) is unconvinced about the passage from foregnisation to the professed democratic agenda: â€Å"if translators refuse to produce fluent texts, if they make themselves visible through the use of â€Å"resistant† strategies†¦all the rest will surely change too. Such would appear to be the gung-ho reasoning that makes Venuti so visible (Pym 2010, p. 2). The passage from a disrupted reading experience to the wider democratic agenda that Venuti takes for granted is rather unclear. Supposing a reader ‘gets’ what Venuti is trying to do and is taken out of the illusion of being actually reading the words of the original author: the reader becomes aware of the translation being a translation. How can this, beyond achieving a degree of visibility for the translators, achieve further goals?Venuti himself is aware of these difficulties and asks â€Å"what would happen if a translator tried to redirect the process of domestication by choosing foreign texts that deviated from transparent discourse and by translating hem so as to signal their linguistic and cultural differences? Would this effort establish more democratic cultural exchanges? Would it change domestic values? Or would it mean banishment to the fringes of Anglo-American culture? † (Venuti 1995, pp. 40-41). Central to Venutià ¢â‚¬â„¢s concerns, however, there is an aspect of translation that Pym recognizes as key to contemporary translation practices: the question of copyrights. Copyrights Venuti dedicated a chapter of his 1995’s work to the Italian writer Iginio Ugo Tarchetti (1839-1869) (Venuti 1995, 148-186). In 1865, Tarchetti plagiarised Shelley’s tale â€Å"the mortal immortal† by translating it into Italian without acknowledging the English author.While Venuti recognises that â€Å"the shrewdness and sheer audacity of Tarchetti’s plagiarism may make it attractive to dissidents in Anglo-American literary culture†, he also recognises the practical limits of such practice: â€Å"Tarchetti’s translation practices cannot be imitated today without significant revision. Plagiarism, for example, is largely excluded by copyright laws that bind translators as well as authors†¦ to publish an unauthorized translation of a copyrighted foreign text is to invite le gal proceedings whose cost will far exceed the translator’s income from even a bestselling translation† (Venuti 1995, 185). Venuti advice to contemporary English-language translator is not break the law, but rather, to choose carefully what to translate: The choice of a foreign text for translation can be just as foreignising in its impact on the target-language culture as the invention of a discursive strategy.At a time when deviations from fluency may limit the circulation of a translation or even prevent it from getting published in the first place, Tarchetti points to the strategic value of discriminating carefully among foreign texts and literatures when a translation project is developed† (Venuti 1995, 185-186). Venuti calls attention to the manner in which contracts and copyright laws regulate the production of translated literature. Translation, according to the Berne international copyright convention is defined as ‘derivative’ work (WIPO art icle 2 (3)). Therefore, translation is morally and legally bound to the will of the original author (WIPO article 8).Copyright law varies according to nations, the US and UK lacking the concept of ‘Author’s rights’ that is present in most continental Europe’s laws, while the US and UK have clearly defined ‘fair use’ clause that are not present in continental Europe. Pym agrees that copyright law on translation need revision: â€Å"The idea of limiting the author’s translation rights to a short period of perhaps five years sounds like an excellent practical way of stimulating translationsâ€Å" but at the same time, he is sceptical of drastic measures: â€Å"But is our complaint really that â€Å"the translator’s authorship is never given full legal recognition†? (Venuti 1995, p. 9) Do we have to do away with the distinction between author and translator, or even with copyright altogether? † (Pym 2010, p. 4).Intern ational Copyright law reinforces the idea that translation is not ‘transformative’ work, which is defined more narrowly in terms of criticism or parody. Translation as derivative work falls within the category of ‘copy’ that is regulated by ‘copy-rights’. While much translation theory in the past 20 years since the emergence of translation studies as an academic discipline has struggled to establish translation as a serious intellectual endeavour worthy of scholarly attention, the commercial reality that regulates the production of translation tells a strikingly different tale: literary translation, as a form of cultural production, is regulated by the practices of the publishing industry.The translation of foreign literature is subject to norms, laws and market restrictions, as well as architectural conditions. Lessing model of restriction that applies to all cultural commodities (i. e. : culture that is bought and sold, of which translated li terature is part of (Lessing 2005, 133). Lessing sees cultural commodities as subjected to restrictions that until the 20th century were fairly balanced: publishers’ rights were regulated by copyrights law, so as to limit their monopoly over the production and distribution of culture. This guaranteed the exclusive ability to reproduce and translate literary works on behalf of the author for a limited time.The concept of a ‘limited monopoly’ was balanced by the fact that once such monopoly expired, artistic works would fall into the public domain and so become available for the general public to read, print, distribute and translate without the need to acquire the copyright holder permission. Unlike the law in continental Europe, according to common law practices in the US and UK, the copyright holder could control the distribution and translation of a work regardless of the author’s wishes. In continental Europe, by contrast, the concept of ‘authorâ €™s rights’ recognise the moral right to claim authorship of a work and to retain the ability of stop distribution of his work.One might wonder if, before the introduction of copyright laws, translators indulged indiscriminately in the plagiarism of foreign works as in the example of Tarchetti. The truth is that until 1790, in the United States the right granted by a copyright only gave the author the exclusive right to ‘publish’ a particular book and did not extend to derivative works: â€Å"it would not interfere with the right of someone other than the author to translate a copyrighted book, or to adapt the story to a different form (such as a drama based on a published book)† (Lessing 2005, 136) It seems almost impossible in the contemporary world to imagine a time where the right of translators matched those of the foreign author.It seems natural to imagine the chaos that lack of copyrights would cause: an infinite number of translators plagiarisi ng the work of foreign authors and passing them as their own creations. It is this anxiety in regards to plagiarism, of a lack of clearly established standards of authorship that drives suspicion about translation. Authorship as creative genius is a value that is attached to a person or a work of art. This value can be seen reflected in the idea of ‘intellectual property’ which depicts copyrights rights as a natural state of affairs, that is, a natural property right. However, according to William Patry, copyrights are created solely the government and therefore should not be understood as an end in itself, but instead an end to a social objective: furthering learning (Patry moral panic, 103).Patry argues that the essence of property is not absolute dominion over things, but rather, it is determined by a system of social relationships: â€Å"property is quintessentially and absolutely a social institution. Every concept of property reflects†¦those choices that we – as a society- have made† LAURA UNDERKUFFERLER, 203, 54 IN PATRY 103 (Patry 103). That means that copyrights, and the idea of authorship that underpins copyrights, are determined by social practices and therefore reflected in social norms, and finally and more concretely, in the legislation that regulate copyrights. Before copyright renewal in the United States became automatic in 1992, only a small percentage of authors claimed them, and even smaller percentage applied for renewal (Patry, 67-68).Paradoxically, copyright became valuable to corporations only when they were given automatically without authors having to do anything to claim it: â€Å"Survey of renewal rates in the United Stes from 1910 to 2001 found a range between 3 percent in 1910 to 22 percent in 1991†¦of all the books published the united states in 1930, and therefore under copyright until 2025, only 174, or 1. 7 percent, are still in print† (Patry 68). The boundary that separates a legiti mate creative response to a work of art and an illegitimate one is made tangible in law by the prohibition to copy, adapt or translate without the consent of the foreign author. Such law, which seems almost common sense in contemporary society, has a relatively short history. Changing attitudes towards intellectual property rights reflect contemporary anxiety in regards to originality and authorship, which contributes to the marginality of translation.According to Venuti â€Å"whereas authorship is generally defined as originality, self-expression in a unique text, translation is derivative, neither self-expression nor unique: it imitates another text given the reigning concept of authorship, translation provokes the fear of inauthenticity, distortion, contamination† (Venuti 1998, 31). This anxiety affects the most those concerned about plagiarism, especially academic institutions and academic publishing: â€Å"translation is rarely considered a form of literary scholarship, it does not currently constitute a qualification for an academic appointment in a particular field or area of literary study, and, compared to original compositions translated texts are infrequently made the object of literary research† (Venuti 1998, 32). Here Venuti is critical of the academic deference towards the ‘original’ at the expenses of translation.The concept of authorship here joins that of fluent translation in an attempt to present the foreign author as the one who is ‘speaking’ through the medium of the text, in order to â€Å"ascertain the authorial intention that constitutes originality† (Venuti 1998, 31). The Translator hence become an uncomfortable middle man that must hide, as much as possible, both the facts that the text in question is a not the original, and that the foreign author did not employ the language of the translation. The middle man goes unnoticed, not by mere oversight, but quite deliberately. Copyright law, a lso reflected in translation contracts, perpetuate this neglect. Copyright, as we have seen, by defining translation as derivative work, justify contracts that employ translators as work-for-hire, so that the product of their work belongs to the publishing company who do not have to acknowledge the translator.Practical example of this is the lack of the translator’s name on the cover of a volume or in library catalogue indexes, or the disparity between the royalties that the translator receives in comparison to those of the foreign author. The disparity between authorship and translation affects the whole production of commercially translated literature. What i would like to explore next is the side of contemporary translation that is not affected by commercial consideration or in need of academic recognition. Here the terminology varies from non-commercial translation to amateur translation or fan-translation, but from the point of view of copyright holders it represents a m ore straightforward phenomenon: theft of intellectual property, or in other words, piracy. PiracyAs Castells and Cardoso points out, we usually look at media consumption, of which translated literature is an example of, starting from a media industry definition (Castells and Cardoso 2012). In other words, the content that is normally available to us to read, watch or listen to is usually made available through the payment of a fee or because it is supported by advertising. The commercial relationship that binds together media companies and individual is regulated by a set of rules that are legally formalised into rights and obligations (Castells and Cardoso 2012). Piracy, by infringing these rights and obligations, can be a usefully employed to illustrate some of the issues that characterise the status of translation in the current world, how translation is produced and distributed.In short, the argument I would like to put forward is such: piracy is used to describe everything that is not in the public domain but that can be obtained from non-authorised sources, shared with others, whether for free or not. This means that piracy could be whatever is made available to share that contain even parts, or traces, or adaptations, of existing copyrighted works. A pirate here is defined as anybody who makes use of existing copyrighted material in order to express something of his own (with the exception of criticism or parody, which are allowed by law) (WIPO? ). On one side of the debate there are internet users and in particular peer-to-peer (P2P) networks function as efficient tools of distribution of digital content. On the other, litigious media corporations fighting a moral crusade against intellectual theft.The sides of this war, however, assume different connotations depending on who is doing the description: for the copyright holding corporations, authors are being robbed of the fruits of their work; here the fight is described as one between intellectual cop yright owners and thieves. On the other side, is it estimated that more than 40 million American citizens have used the internet to download content; hence a substantial part of US citizens is being criminalised. Lessing asks: â€Å"Is there another way to assure that artists get paid without transforming forty-three million Americans into felons? Does it make sense if there are other ways to assure that artists get paid without transforming America into a nation of felons? † (Lessing 2005, 202).The model of distribution of culture that once revolved around a few selected corporations is now being challenged by technological innovations that were unimaginable a generation ago. Digital content can be shared across the world free of physical constrains (such as books, shops, printing press, etc. ) but also free from the editors, publishers, and reviewers which Venuti sees as the source of neglect of foreign texts and translation practices that emphasise heterogeneity of discour se. The sharing possibilities offered by the net act as a source of heterogeneity: they provide easily accessible, free to share, translated foreign literature that constitutes an alternative to what is available commercially.Venuti limited his theory of translation within the boundaries of commercial translation, albeit as a form of dissidence in respect to the practices enforced by institutional channels. What is of interested here from the point of view of translation are the possibilities offered by working outside the commercial paradigm, the translation practices of those communities that focus on literature, like dojinshi, that are not accessible to the translators working within the legitimate sphere, whether due to social norms, ideology, poetics, of purely economic reasons. The net provides a venue (cultural space? Deleuze and Guattari) for that sub-cultures that are neglected by commercial organizations (and that could not be catered for legally by other institutions). Re ferencesCastells, M. and Cardoso, G. 2012. Piracy Cultures Editorial Introduction. International Journal of Communication [Online] 6. Available at: http://ijoc. org/ojs/index. php/ijoc/article/view/1610/732 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Denison, R. 2011. Anime fandom and the liminal spaces between fan creativity and piracy. International Journal of Cultural Studies [Online] 14(5). Available at: http://ics. sagepub. com/content/14/5/449. full. pdf+html [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Diaz Cintas, J. and Munoz Sanchez, P. 2006. Fansubs: audiovisual translation in an amateur environment. The Journal of Specialised Translation [Online] 6. Available at: http://www. jostrans. rg/issue06/art_diaz_munoz. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Hatcher, J. 2005. Of otaku and fansubs: a critical look at anime online in light of current issues in copyright law. [Online]. Available at: http://www. law. ed. ac. uk/ahrc/SCRIPT-ed/vol2-4/hatcher. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Hemmann, K. 2010. Dojinshi [Online]. Avai lable at: http://japaneseliterature. wordpress. com/2010/02/20/dojinshi-part-one/ [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Karaganis, J. et al. 2011. Media piracy in emerging economies. [Online]. Available at: http://bibliotecadigital. fgv. br/dspace/bitstream/handle/10438/8526/MPEE-PDF-Full%20Book. pdf. txt? sequ.. [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Koulikov, M. 2010.Fighting the fan sub war: Conflicts between media rights holders and unauthorized creator/distributor networks. Transformative Works and Cultures [Online] 5(0). Available at: http://journal. transformativeworks. org/index. php/twc/article/view/115/171. Lee, H. K. 2009. Between fan culture and copyright infringement: manga scanlation. Media, culture, and society [Online] 31(6). Available at: http://www. yorku. ca/rcoombe/courses/Owning%20Culture/class03_Lee. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Lee, H. K. 2011. Participatory media fandom: A case study of anime fansubbing. Media, Culture ; Society [Online] 33(8). Available at: http://www. kcl. ac. uk/ artshums/depts/cmci/people/papers/lee/participatory. df [Accessed: 13 June 2013]. Lessig, L. 2005. Free culture: The nature and future of creativity. Penguin Group USA. Madison, M. J. 2007. Intellectual property and Americana, or why IP gets the blues. Fordham Intell. Prop. Media ; Ent. LJ [Online] 18. Available at: http://ir. lawnet. fordham. edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi? article=1407;context=iplj [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Mehra, S. 2002. Copyright and comics in Japan: Does law explain why all the cartoons my kid watches are Japanese imports. Rutgers L. Rev. [Online] 55. Available at: http://corneredangel. com/amwess/papers/copyright_comics_japan. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Muscar, J. E. 2006.Winner Is Who-Fair Use and the Online Distribution of Manga and Video Game Fan Translations. Vand. J. Ent. ; Tech. L. [Online] 9. Available at: http://www-prod. law. vanderbilt. edu/publications/journal-entertainment-technology-law/archive/download. aspx? id=1694 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Noda, N. T. 2008. When Holding On Means Letting Go: Why Fair Use Should Extend to Fan-Based Activities. University of Denver Sports and Entertainment Law Journal [Online] 5. Available at: http://law. du. edu/documents/sports-and-entertainment-law-journal/issues/05/05-noda. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Noda, N. T. 2010. Copyrights retold: How interpretive rights foster creativity and justify fan-based activities.Seton Hall Journal of Sports and Entertainment Law [Online] 20(1). Available at: http://law. shu. edu/Students/academics/journals/sports-entertainment/Issues/upload/Vol20_Noda_Formatted. pdf [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. O'Hagan, M. 2009. Evolution of user-generated translation: fansubs, translation hacking and crowdsourcing. Journal of Internationalisation and Localisation [Online] 1(1). Available at: http://pablomunoz. com/wp-content/JIAL_2009_1_2009_APA. pdf#page=102 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Sanchez, P. M. 2009. Video Game Localisation for Fans by Fans: The Case of Romhacking. Th e Journal of Internationalisation and Localisation Volume I [Online].Available at: http://pablomunoz. com/wp-content/JIAL_2009_1_2009_APA. pdf#page=176 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. Venuti, L. 1995. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. London ; New York: Routledge. Watson, J. 2010. Fandom squared: Web 2. 0 and fannish production. Transformative Works and Cultures [Online] 5. Available at: http://journal. transformativeworks. org/index. php/twc/article/viewArticle/218/183 [Accessed: 13 June 2012]. WIPO. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works [Online]. World Intellectual Property Organisation. Available at: http://www. wipo. int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001. html [Accessed: 13 June 2012].

Free Essays on The Big Dig

The Central Artery/Tunnel Project also known as â€Å"The Big Dig† is the largest, most complex, and technologically challenging highway project ever undertaken in the U.S. It represents a unique challenge in that it is being built in the heart of Boston, almost completely underground. The Big Dig includes examples of project planning, creative problem solving and innovative use of technology. This highway system is no doubt one of the greatest of its kind and will soon be the standard of highway design for other states and countries. The Central Artery/Tunnel project utilized project planning to make the final product, the highway and tunnel system, the safest and most efficient highway possible. The West Virginia fire tests helped scientists and engineers create a procedure in case fire broke out in one of the tunnels. Because of this project planning, if a fire in a tunnel occurs, air flow, among other things will change thus dowsing the fire as quickly as possible. Many examples of creative problem solving can be seen in the construction of the central Artery/Tunnel. When engineers had to dig a tunnel underneath train tracks with running trains, they came up with a solution witch involved a construction method called tunnel jacking. The fist step was to freeze the soil underneath the train and above the excavation site. This would harden the loose soil making cave-ins less likely to happen. Secondly, instead of digging caverns and placing supporting beans like tunneling into caves, a hydraulic pushing device would slowly push already assembled sections of tunnel into the unexcavated soil underneath the train. Thus, moving at a rate of 1 meter a day, the tunnel will slowly enter deeper and deeper into the soil. Innovative use of technology could be seen in the control and regulation of the highways. An example of this technology is the traffic detection system. Its purpose is to detect traffic problems and dispatch the a... Free Essays on The Big Dig Free Essays on The Big Dig The Central Artery/Tunnel Project also known as â€Å"The Big Dig† is the largest, most complex, and technologically challenging highway project ever undertaken in the U.S. It represents a unique challenge in that it is being built in the heart of Boston, almost completely underground. The Big Dig includes examples of project planning, creative problem solving and innovative use of technology. This highway system is no doubt one of the greatest of its kind and will soon be the standard of highway design for other states and countries. The Central Artery/Tunnel project utilized project planning to make the final product, the highway and tunnel system, the safest and most efficient highway possible. The West Virginia fire tests helped scientists and engineers create a procedure in case fire broke out in one of the tunnels. Because of this project planning, if a fire in a tunnel occurs, air flow, among other things will change thus dowsing the fire as quickly as possible. Many examples of creative problem solving can be seen in the construction of the central Artery/Tunnel. When engineers had to dig a tunnel underneath train tracks with running trains, they came up with a solution witch involved a construction method called tunnel jacking. The fist step was to freeze the soil underneath the train and above the excavation site. This would harden the loose soil making cave-ins less likely to happen. Secondly, instead of digging caverns and placing supporting beans like tunneling into caves, a hydraulic pushing device would slowly push already assembled sections of tunnel into the unexcavated soil underneath the train. Thus, moving at a rate of 1 meter a day, the tunnel will slowly enter deeper and deeper into the soil. Innovative use of technology could be seen in the control and regulation of the highways. An example of this technology is the traffic detection system. Its purpose is to detect traffic problems and dispatch the a...

Using the Spanish Verb Venir

Using the Spanish Verb Venir Venir is a common Spanish verb with a variety of meanings. Fortunately, many of them can be translated using the English verb to come, which also has numerous meanings. Venir is a cousin of English -vent words such as invent and convent as well of venue and venire (a legal term). Keep in mind that venir  is conjugated irregularly, having forms such as vengo (I come) and vendrn (they will come). Using Venir To Refer to Coming From a Place Most commonly, venir is used to talk about coming to or arriving at a place: Cuando yo vine a California fui a Disneylandia. (When I came to California, I went to Disneyland.)Venimos en bus con un maestro y pagamos por nuestro transporte. (We came by bus with a teacher and paid for our own transportation.)Tenà ­a sà ³lo un aà ±o cuando vino desde Espaà ±a. (He was only a year old when he came from Spain.) ¡Ven aquà ­! (Come here!)No vienen hasta las 14.30. (They arent coming until 2:30 p.m.) In context, venir can convey the idea of coming back or returning: No vengas a mà ­. (Tà ­tulo de cancià ³n) (Dont come back to me. (song title))Es importante que vengas temprano. (Its important you come back early.) Using Venir To Point Out Qualities Venir can mean to include, to be, or to have, often in a way that can be translated by to come: El primer iPad no viene con webcam. (The first iPad doesnt come with (include) a webcam.)Estas bicicletas vienen de Surinam. (These bicycles are (come) from Suriname.)El à ºnico que viene con excusas eres tà º. (The only one who comes with (has) excuses is you.)Las servilletas vienen en distintos tamaà ±os. (The napkins come (are) in different sizes.)Viene en caja sellada. (It comes (is) in a sealed box.) Especially when used with bien or mal, venir can be used to indicate suitability: No ser muy famoso me viene bien. (Not being very famous is fine with me.)A ningà ºn paà ­s le viene mal la globalizacià ³n. (Globalization doesnt serve any country poorly.)Al libro le venà ­a bien la promocià ³n. (The promotion was good for the book.) Using Venir With a Gerund Venir can be used as an auxiliary verb with the gerund (also known as the present participle) to indicate a continuing action, often in an increasingly intense way. Hace mucho tiempo que se viene hablando de la necesidad de una nueva constitucià ³n. (The need for a new constitution has been talked about and talked about for a long time.)El presidente viene sufriendo derrota tras derrota. (The president continues to suffer defeat after defeat.)El chofer del camià ³n venà ­a hablando por telà ©fono. (The truck driver kept on talking on a telephone.)   Using Venirse The reflexive form, venirse, like the standard form, can mean to come from a place. But it places more emphasis on where the thing or person has come from. La rumba se vino de Miami. (The rumba came from Miami. La rumba vino de Miami might be translated the same way, but making the verb reflexive calls extra attention to Miami, perhaps because the fact of the sentence may be surprising.)Los turistas se vienen de otros paà ­ses. (The tourists are coming from other countries.)Necesitaremos agua por quà © nos venimos del desierto. (We will need water because we are coming from the desert.) The reflexive can also suggest that the verbs action was sudden or unexpected: Era lo primero que se vino a cabeza. (It was the first thing that came to mind.)Otra hipà ³tesis es que el puente se vino abajo por la fragilidad de sus pilares. (Another theory is that the bridge came down because of the fragility of its pillars.)Los vientos se vinieron de un solo golpe. (The winds came suddenly in a single blow.) Key Takeaways Venir can usually be translated as to come, whether it is used to mean coming from a place or to have a certain quality.Venir can be used with gerunds to indicate continuous action.The reflexive venirse can be used to emphasize the origins of where someone is coming from or to emphasize the suddenness of an action.

Discuss the historical poetics relation with The Devil's Backbone, Essay

Discuss the historical poetics relation with The Devil's Backbone, focus on two close analysis of two sequences - Essay Example The method of production itself includes the principles that determine how the project was composed, the effects, functions and uses of the project and the basic rules that govern cinematography and how they have been applied in the film. The historical poetics of a film mainly seeks to answer two main questions: Horror films are a multifaceted construct whose development and poetics are shaped by a wide array of artistic and historical factors, such that they can only be completely appreciated by considering influences and its predecessors. Apart from this, it is also important to assess the aesthetic distinction employed in these films in the historical and cultural setting that shape them (Gomez-Castellano, 2013). According to LÃ ¡zaro-Reboll (2007, pp.39), Horror is a literary prose described by three important factors, artistic intent (triggering suspense, terror or fear), specific themes (the discord between natural and supernatural), and sufficient motifs (involving presentation of otherness as compared to the norm). Historical poetics is regarded as the outcome of assimilating the director’s poetics with particular artistic and literary influences that affect the fears prevailing in particular periods as well as the form in which they are represented. In the devil’s backbone, various constructional principles have been utilized to make it a truly poetic film. The opening sequence of the film presents a good understanding of historical poetics through symbolism and imagery. In this sequence, a voice over narration plays over the death of Santi and the falling bomb. The narration brings on an argument of what a ghost is. The film then presents a disturbing image of a deformed baby inside a jar suspended in fluid. In the voice over narration, the director uses a rhetoric that strives to gain the audience’s agreement to the